Last updated: October 2026. This article is for general information and is not a substitute for personalised advice from your doctor, health visitor, or paediatrician. See our Editorial Policy.
Quick answer: A new 15-year study in Communications Psychology, led by Notre Dame psychologist Kaylin Hill, found that the more warm, supportive and encouraging parenting researchers observed when children were 3, and the less harsh or intrusive parenting, the stronger those children’s brain response to rewards tended to be at ages 9, 12, 15 and 18. The study followed 465 young people and is observational, so it shows an association, not proof that parenting causes the difference. It does not mean one bad day with a toddler leaves a mark: it looked at overall patterns of behaviour.
What the study actually did
According to a University of Notre Dame release published by News-Medical on October 9, 2026, the research team began by observing one-on-one interactions between 3-year-olds and their parents at Stony Brook University in New York. The project followed 465 young people and their parents over 15 years and was supported by a grant from the U.S. National Institute of Mental Health.
In the lab, the researchers coded how often they saw positive parenting (warmth, support, encouragement) versus negative parenting (being harsh, heavy-handed or overly intrusive). Earth.com’s summary adds that the coded behaviours included responsiveness on the positive side and criticism on the negative side.
Years later, when the children were 9, 12, 15 and 18, the team used EEG, a cap with small scalp sensors, to record the brain’s electrical response while the children played a guessing game in which they could win or lose small amounts of money. The signal of interest is called reward positivity: a fast brain response to a good outcome.
What they found
“What we saw is that the more positive, and less negative, parenting behaviors we observed at age 3, the larger the brain’s reward response seemed to be for individuals across adolescence,” Hill said, as quoted in the Notre Dame release.
In plain terms, children who had experienced more positive parenting got a bigger brain “boost” from winning, while children raised with more negative parenting showed a more muted response. Earth.com reports the more muted pattern persisted, and in some cases deepened, through the teenage years.
Why does that matter? The Notre Dame release says reward processing is one piece of the puzzle of mental health risk, and Hill said, “early parenting is associated with one of the largest neural indicators of risk for mental health concerns we know of to date.” Earth.com notes that people with depression often show weaker brain responses to positive outcomes.
What this study does not show
This is where headlines can mislead, so here are the limits:
- It is observational. Notre Dame’s release says so directly, and Earth.com adds that it shows a statistical association, not a clean causal chain.
- Other things matter. Earth.com lists genetics, temperament and later life experiences as factors in how a child develops. The researchers did account for maternal depression history, according to the same article.
- The sample is limited. Earth.com reports the sample was predominantly white and middle-class, which limits how widely the results can be generalised.
- It is one study. Hill describes the work as pulling together “a single strand,” one explanation of likely many, for what puts someone at risk.
- It measured a brain signal, not a diagnosis. Nothing here predicts that a particular child will develop depression.
What it means for everyday parenting of a toddler or preschooler
Hill’s own takeaway is hopeful. “Behaviors are so much more open to intervention than a genetic explanation to what is driving risk within families,” she said. Earth.com adds that programs that help parents be warmer, more responsive and less harsh already exist, and that the study gives researchers a possible mechanism for why they might matter.
The study is not a parenting how-to, and it does not test specific techniques. But the behaviours it measured are concrete, so these are reasonable ways to read it in daily life (our interpretation, not the researchers’ instructions):
- Notice the positives out loud. Warmth, support and encouragement were the positive behaviours coded. Specific praise (“you kept trying on that puzzle”) is one everyday form of encouragement.
- Respond when your toddler reaches for you. Responsiveness was part of the positive behaviours Earth.com describes.
- Watch for the intrusive habits. The negative behaviours were harshness, over-intrusiveness and criticism. Taking over the block tower or correcting every attempt can slide into the intrusive end without us noticing.
- Aim for a pattern, not perfection. The researchers looked at overall observed behaviour in a lab session, not individual bad moments. Everyone has hard days; our guide to parental burnout and “good enough” parenting covers what helps when you are running on empty.
- Reset after meltdowns without shaming. If tantrums are the flashpoint in your house, see our piece on the viral “Jessica” trick for toddler meltdowns.
- Get support early. Hill says it is critical to support parents, perhaps even before a child is born. Asking for help is part of the evidence-based approach, not a failure.
You don’t need to be perfect (and many parents feel unsure)
A separate UK survey released this National Parenting Week (October 19–23, 2026) found that only 3% of 1,000 parents said they trust their own parenting instincts, while 76% said there is more pressure on parents today to do everything right, according to MadeForMums. The survey was commissioned by baby brand MAM and conducted by Opinion Matters, so the company has a commercial interest, and it surveyed UK adults who became parents within the past 10 years, not this study’s families. We mention it because the study’s message and the midwife quoted there point the same way: parents don’t need to be perfect, they need support and reassurance.
The bottom line
The headline finding, that warm, encouraging parenting at age 3 was linked with stronger brain reward responses through the teen years, is interesting and fairly hopeful, because parenting behaviour is something families can practise and get support with. But it is one observational study of 465 people, not a verdict on any individual child or parent. Use it as a nudge to notice the good, stay responsive, and go easy on yourself on the days that don’t go to plan.
If you’d like the checklists and trackers that help busy parents stay organised, the New Parent Starter Bundle has printable guides for pregnancy through toddlerhood.
Sources
- Positive parenting in early childhood linked to stronger brain reward responses — University of Notre Dame via News-Medical, October 9, 2026 (journal reference: Hill, K. E., et al. (2026), Communications Psychology, DOI 10.1038/s44271-026-00507-7)
- How parents treat toddlers may shape their brains for years to come — Earth.com, October 12, 2026
- Just 3% of parents trust their parenting instincts — MadeForMums, October 20, 2026
🌿 Join Our Parenting Newsletter
Get weekly evidence-based parenting tips, EU-specific guides, and product recommendations — straight to your inbox.